HAMMURABI CODE

The Hammurabi Code is one of the oldest known written legal codes, originating in ancient Mesopotamia during the reign of King Hammurabi of Babylon (ca. 1792–1750 BCE). It was inscribed on a basalt stele and placed in public view, signifying both the authority of the king and the transparency of law. This comprehensive legal text outlines 282 laws dealing with civil, criminal, commercial, and family matters. The prologue and epilogue emphasize Hammurabi’s divine right to rule and his duty to uphold justice. The code provides a window into Babylonian society, its class divisions, gender roles, and theological underpinnings. Discovered in 1901 at Susa (modern Iran), the code is now housed in the Louvre Museum. It remains a cornerstone for understanding ancient jurisprudence and governance.

Hammurabi was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire, best known for expanding Babylon throughout the whole of Mesopotamia. Reigning from around 1792 to 1750 BCE, Hammurabi undertook a series of public works projects while consolidating the city-states of Mesopotamia. Uniquely, Hammurabi was honored as a god while still living, leading to his celebration as a conqueror and lawgiver throughout ancient Sumer. The Code of Hammurabi remained celebrated in popular culture even before archaeological discovery.

Documents:
Code of Hammurabi Stele, basalt monument (ca. 1754 BCE)
Cuneiform Tablets from Old Babylonian Period (ca. 1800–1600 BCE)
Louvre Museum Collection (Stele No. Sb 8, Louvre ID AO 10237)
Translations by L.W. King, Theophile J. Meek, and Martha Roth

First major codified set of laws in history
Features the famous principle of lex talionis (“an eye for an eye”)
Contains laws on marriage, contracts, wages, slavery, theft, and injury
Clearly outlines legal distinctions between free men, commoners, and slaves
Influenced later legal systems, including Biblical law and Roman jurisprudence

• “To cause justice to prevail in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil…”
  Establishes the divine and moral purpose behind the code.
• “If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.” (Law 196)
  A clear example of lex talionis, emphasizing equal revenge.
• “If a builder builds a house and it collapses, killing the owner, the builder shall be put to death.” (Law 229)
  Demonstrates legal responsibility and liability—an early form of building codes.

The 282 laws are grouped by topic and legal area:
Prologue – Declares Hammurabi’s divine authority from Shamash, the god of justice
Laws 1–5: Legal procedure and perjury
Laws 6–25: Theft, robbery, and economic crime
Laws 26–41: Military service and property rights
Laws 42–88: Agriculture, irrigation, and commerce
Laws 89–126: Business practices and loans
Laws 127–195: Family law: marriage, divorce, paternity, inheritance
Laws 196–214: Bodily injury and medical malpractice
Laws 215–282: Labor law and slavery
Epilogue – Praises Hammurabi’s justice and warns future kings not to alter his words

• Legal History: Considered the foundation of modern legal codes

• Cultural Symbol: A marker of civilization and law-based governance

• Comparative Studies: Regularly analyzed alongside the Mosaic Law

• Scholarly Debate: Questions remain about its use—was it practiced law or ideological monument?

• Museums and Education: Featured in legal, historical, and ethical curricula worldwide

• The code reflects a society structured by divine kingship, class hierarchy, and religious legitimacy. Justice was seen as a god-given order, and law was administered to preserve cosmic balance (ma’at in Egyptian terms, though Mesopotamian equivalents existed).

• Influences and parallels:

  Earlier Sumerian codes (e.g., Ur-Nammu, Lipit-Ishtar)
  Later Hebrew law in the Torah (Exodus 20–23; Leviticus)
  Roman legal thought (jus civile vs. jus gentium)
  Enlightenment-era concepts of rule of law and codification (e.g., Napoleonic Code)

1901: Stele unearthed in Susa, Iran by Jacques de Morgan
1902: Louvre Museum acquires and displays the Code of Hammurabi
2003: Included in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register
2006–Present: Required reading in legal theory and ancient history courses (Harvard Law, Yale, LSE)
2019: Louvre digital exhibit launched with high-resolution scans of the stele (https://www.louvre.fr/en)
Ongoing: Referenced in debates on ancient justice, human rights, and legal universal

Secondary Literature (Scholarship)
Roth, Martha T. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Scholars Press, 1997. ISBN: 9781589832652
Driver, G.R., and Miles, J.C. The Babylonian Laws. Oxford University Press, 1952.
Meek, Theophile J. The Code of Hammurabi. Translated edition, University of Chicago Press.
Van De Mieroop, Marc. King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography. Blackwell, 2005. ISBN: 9781405126591

Archival or Online Sources
The Louvre Museum Collection: https://www.louvre.fr/en
UNESCO Memory of the World Register – Hammurabi: https://en.unesco.org/programme/mow
Digital Hammurabi Project: https://cdli.ucla.edu
Livius Ancient History: https://www.livius.org/articles/person/hammurabi
The Avalon Project – Yale Law School: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp